Human Trafficking And Sexual Exploitation Criminology Essay

Human Trafficking And Sexual Exploitation Criminology Essay When I was in Holland in August 1999, I was curious to see Amsterdams Red Light District for myself. Then it was the only place I knew in the world where prostitution was legal and have heard that women pose in window inviting customers in. I was with a friend and she started taking pictures of the women in the windows. When my friend took another picture when we were in the middle of the walkway, a prostitute came from behind her window, descendent on us furiously, grabbed the camera and violently removed the film from the camera. We were stunned, apologised profusely and hurriedly tried to make our way. A man came from somewhere and explained that taking pictures were prohibited. At that time I, like most people, have not heard about human trafficking. The issue of human trafficking has received considerable attention in the last ten years from researchers, non-governmental organisations, governments and international bodies the world over. Like most countries, South Africa too is a signatory to the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons (generally referred to as the Palermo Protocol). We formally consented to the Palermo Protocol in December 2003. Thus, as a nation we are obligated to ensure that our internal laws address the issue of human trafficking. Human trafficking has been called a heinous, monstrous,  [1]  crime against humanity  [2]  . It has also been coined modern-day slavery. Human trafficking can take the form of sexual exploitation, labour exploitation, slavery, illegal adoptions, removal of organs and other body parts, for conveying drugs nationally and internationally. However, as much as the issue has been discussed and debated, it has contributed to the hype surrounding FIFA World Cup 2010 and how human trafficking for sexual exploitative purposes will increase [even though there is no research to draw from] during the soccer world cup. This led to discussions and public outcry on whether or not to legalise prostitution; and whether South Africa need a specific legislation dealing with human trafficking. When I wrote my proposal, I considered several key focus areas. It soon became apparent that due to limitations such as time and length of paper, that I needed to reduce the key focus areas. Consequently I have decided for this paper, to focus on definition of trafficking the causes of trafficking explore prostitution and whether or not it should be legalised explore legislative developments pertaining to trafficking protective measures available to victims of trafficking. Research Methodology The research methodology consisted majorly of in-depth desktop research on trafficking of adults, and not people under the age of 18 years, for purposes of sexual exploitation. Much has been written about human trafficking, but it is still difficult to find reliable studies thereof. Some of these factors include deficiencies in methodology; defining trafficking; high levels of mobility; and the underground nature of trafficking; links to organised crime; victims fears and unwillingness to participate in research; and potential dangers to researchers.  [3]   Gould and Fick wrote that they failed to find a single prostitute who said she was being forced by unscrupulous pimps to sell sex against her will.  [4]  This does not mean that there are no victims of sex trafficking in and around Cape Town. I thought I could draw on an article written by Immelback Interviewing a Victim of Human Trafficking.  [5]  Upon closer look I realised that she did not interview a victim of human trafficking, but interviewed the Victim Assistance team who works with victims of trafficking. As it is difficult  [6]  to set up interviews with victims of sex trafficking due to a host of reasons, including personal, I abandoned interviewing them for this paper due to my limitations. I decided to instead research movies and or documentaries that depict human trafficking for purposes of sexual exploitation. I will reflect on one of such movies, namely the movie Taken where Liam Neeson plays the role of a concerned and heroic father, whose daughter and friend have been trafficked for purposes of sexual exploitation, and he lengths he went to rescue them. Throughout the paper I will try to avoid preferring to victims in the feminine form, even if the majority of the persons who victims of sex trafficking are women. This is to prevent sexism in my writing.  [7]   A Review Of The Literature Defining Human Trafficking One of most debated issues of human trafficking is the definition of human trafficking. Article 3 of the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons (Palermo Procol) defines trafficking as: trafficking in persons shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include at a minimum the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour of services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs; the consent of a victim of trafficking in persons to the intended exploitation set forth in subparagraph (a) of this Article shall be irrelevant where any of the means set out in paragraph (a) have been used; Most countries have taken the definition verbatim when they drafted their anti-trafficking laws. Kara  [8]  undertook several research trips to investigate human trafficking on four continents. He questions whether the definition is subparagraph 3(a) includes exploitation.  [9]  He opines that the wording only speaks to the movement portion of the chain, which explains why anti-trafficking law focus on movement more than exploitation  [10]  . He argues that trafficking is not about movement, it is about slavery.  [11]  He writes that current anti-trafficking efforts primary seek to crack down on modern-day slave traders, resulting in little more than adjustments in routes, larger bribes to border guards, and the procurement of false travel documents.  [12]  He suggests that a much clearer understanding of sex trafficking is required- wherein the movement and the purpose of the movement are disaggregated as criminal acts- to achieve greater abolitionist effectivene ss.  [13]  He suggests two definitions which could be used to eradicate sex trafficking, namely Slave trading- process of acquiring, recruiting, harbouring, receiving, or transporting an individual, through any means and for any distance, into a condition of slavery or slave-like exploitation.  [14]   Slavery- process of coercing labour or other services from a captive individual, through any means, including exploitation of bodies or body parts. He argues breaking the definition into different parts should be effective when formulating efforts to combat the crime of sex trafficking, and that confusion over what trafficking is results in blunted purpose, diffracted focus and exclusion of important components of trafficking-related crimes.  [15]   The Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) Tsireledzani 2010 report dealt with the problems of trafficking. They have expanded the definition of trafficking to include trafficking within national borders; forced marriages; child labour; impregnation of a female against her will for the purposes of selling her child when born; and trafficking of body parts.  [16]   In South Africa Gould and Fick created a stir with their controversial research on sex trafficking in Cape Town. They argue that the definition is too broad  [17]  and that there seem to no agreement on what could be considered as exploitation  [18]  . Another criticism of the definition by Gould and Fick is the issue of consent of the victim being irrelevant.  [19]  They opine that by ignoring the fact that the victim consented to be trafficked, is to ignore the specific needs of the victim, especially the victim who do not wish to return home to the same circumstances that led the victim to be trafficked in the first place.  [20]  Gould and Fick conclude that critiques would suggest that the term trafficking may not be a useful lens through which to consider issues of exploitation and abuse in the sex work industry.  [21]   Sex trafficking and prostitution are often perceived as two sides of the same coin. However, it is not. It is important to differentiate between sex trafficking and prostitution. With sex trafficking the person is being exploited to perform sex work; the person is not directly paid, but money might be sent to the victims family; the person is compelled to do the sex work; the person is not in a position to stop working unless the person escape; the person does not have autonomy of movement- it is restricted; the person is not able to negotiate a rate, fee, hours; the person is not able to negotiate the sexual acts; the person is not able to negotiate safe sexual practices; With prostitution, however, the sex worker is paid directly (if the person is based at a brothel, money might be paid either to person self or the person managing the brothel); can decide to stop whenever; choose to do the sex work due personal circumstances; can negotiate sexual acts; can negotiate safe sexual practices; can negotiate the rate, fee and hours; is able to enjoy freedom of movement; can still enjoy life as a person (fall in love, have babies, etc) Why does sex trafficking occur? The root causes of trafficking are complex, the vulnerability resulting from poverty is a major contributor.  [22]  The HSRC list pull factors such as economic inequality, conflicts, adoption trade, the use of organs or body parts in rituals.  [23]  They list poverty and deprivation, persistent unemployment, gender discrimination, lack of information and education, harmful socio-cultural practices and lack of legislative and policy protection as push factors.  [24]  They also cite issues such as disempowerment, social exclusion, and economic vulnerability- the result of policies and practices- marginalise entire groups of people, rendering them vulnerable to being trafficked.  [25]   The general perception is that only men are traffickers. Women are also involved in human trafficking, not only as victims, but also as traffickers.  [26]  It has been found that traffickers are also women, as mainly Mozambican women in partnership with their compatriots and South African men who transport trafficked victims from Maputo to Johannesburg or Durban.  [27]  Victims trafficked to Europe are recruited by Malawian businesswomen.  [28]   Kara argues that sex trafficking occurs because it is a lucrative business.  [29]  He equates sex trafficking with drug trafficking.  [30]  He states that drug trafficking generate greater dollar revenues, but [sex] trafficking is more profitable.  [31]  Unlike a drug, a [human] does not have to be grown, cultivated, distilled, or packaged.  [32]  Unlike a drug, a [human] can be used by the customer again and again.  [33]  34It generates profits through the vulgar and wanton destruction of lives.  [35]   Kara describes several five ways how sex slaves are acquired, namely deceit, sale by family, abduction, seduction or romance, or recruitment by former sex slaves.  [36]  Each of these ways will be briefly illustrated below. Deceit Deceit involves false job offers, travel, or other income-generating opportunity, false marriage offers (mail order brides).  [37]  He opine that in countries where marriage is the only way for a female to secure social acceptance, basic rights, and avoid a lifetime of persecution, false marriage offers are effective ways to acquire sex slaves.  [38]  People living in refugee camps are very susceptible to sex trafficking as they are often not allowed to leave the camp to seek employment.  [39]  Traffickers visiting refugee camps with job offers are usually very successful in getting people.  [40]   Sale by or involvement of family members I first encountered family involvement when I read a news article.  [41]  The article said that police had rescued a seventeen year old teenage girl from Klerksdorp from a brothel in Table View.  [42]  It alleged that the mother of the teenager knew the brothel owner and have promised her daughter that she will be working as a child minder.  [43]  Did the mother knew that her daughter will be expected to do sex work? Poverty, desperation and displacement lead many families to sell a family member into slavery, and that they seldom are sold for greed.  [44]  Parents are often forced by poverty and ignorance to enlist their children, hoping to benefit from their wages and sustain the deteriorating family economic situation.  [45]   Abduction People are rarely abducted into sex trafficking, because it is difficult to transport person without drawing attention. People are also abducted in and from conflict zones and forced to serve as sex slaves to rebel commanders or are sold as slaves.  [46]   Kara says that not only is the abducted victim unwilling to travel, but also will to escape at any opportunity.  [47]  If a person is abducted into sex trafficking, the person is usually also drugged to facilitate easier movement. Seduction or Romance Victims are also lured into trafficking by promises of love and marriage. Traffickers would find attractive and vulnerable people (more often girls), offering them love and marriage, treating them to expensive gifts, seducing them to migrate to a rich country where they can build a life together.  [48]  Once the victim reaches the other country, they are forced into sexual slavery.  [49]   Recruitment by former slaves This too might be difficult to comprehend, but people are also recruited by other victims of trafficking.  [50]  Sex slaves employ adaptive mechanisms to survive their ordeals, including drug and alcohol abuse and the morose acceptance that their fate.  [51]  In East Africa, Ugandan women working as prostitutes in the Gulf States lure young girls from their country because they are usually preferred by male clients.  [52]   Lastly, Kara controversially opines that the United States is more responsible than any other nation for the inimical accretion in human exploitation, trafficking, slavery since the fall of the Berlin Wall. He notes that through the International Monetary Fund and other institutions, the US government rapidly imposed its particular brand of unfettered market economics upon the developing world, unleashing catastrophic increases in poverty, social upheaval, mass migration and lawlessness.  [53]   Should sex work be legalised? When dealing with the issue of sexual exploitation, the question is often raised whether or not to legalised or to decriminalise prostitution. Kara too addresses this in his research. He writes that the argument that prostitution be legalised rests on the premise that women have a right to control their bodies.  [54]  He indicates that legalisation would mean that prostitutes could enjoy the same benefits that other occupations do.  [55]  Legalisation would also allow for state monitoring to ensure that prostitutes were less subject to violence and exploitation and that it would make it more difficult to traffic people for sexual exploitation because victims would have rights under the law, and that criminalising prostitution leads to increased victimisation of trafficking victims.  [56]  Those who are against legalising prostitution argue that purchasing sex and operating sex establishments should be criminalised because prostitution can never be a choice and that the pr ofession is inherently based on a system of male sexual dominance, appropriating the female body for pleasure and reinforcing the subordination and sexual objectification of women.  [57]  He further writes that legalisation gives protection to brothel owners to purchase trafficking victims and inflict greater exploitation behind closed, but legal doors.  [58]  He writes that only governments, organized crime, and pimps benefit from legalisation and women and children suffer state-sanctioned rape and slavery.  [59]  He does not elaborate on how governments benefit from legalising prostitution. Kara investigated two countries, the Netherlands and Sweden legislation regarding prostitution. The Netherlands have legalised prostitution and Sweden has criminalised it. Even though prostitution was legal in Amsterdam, brothels were not until October 2000, when the ban was lifted to enable the Dutch government to exercise more control over the sex industry and counter abuses.  [60]  Brothel owners are issued licences if they are in compliance with certain standards, including panic buttons in work areas, hot and cold running water, and free condoms.  [61]   National Legislative framework Since South Africa signed and ratified the Palermo Protocol, we had to ensure that we enact legislation in accordance. The US Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2010 report ranked South Africa as Tier 2. This means that our government do not fully with the Trafficking Victims Protection Acts (TPVA) minimum standards, but are making significant efforts to bring us into compliance with those standards. Currently our anti-trafficking law is in draft stage, and it is not known if and when the bill will become law. It has been stated that we have several laws that deals with aspects of human trafficking, inter alia the Childrens Act 38 of 2005 (Chapter 18- sections 281 to 291); Films and Publications Board 65 of 1996; Human Tissues Act 65 of 1983; The Corruption Act 94 of 1992; Prevention of Organised Crime Act 121 of 1998; Infringement of Immigration Act 13 of 1996; Refugee Act 130 of 1998; and Extradition Act 67 of 1962. I will discuss these legislative provisions contained in the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act  [62]  as well as the Prevention and Combating Trafficking in Persons bill (2009). The Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act The Sexual Offences Act (SOA) can be used in the interim to charge and prosecute traffickers and victims of trafficking. Section 70 and 71 of the SOA are transitional provisions relating to trafficking. Section 70 deals with application and interpretation and section 71 deals with trafficking in persons for sexual purposes. Section 70 states that 70(b) trafficking includes the supply, recruitment, procurement, capture, removal. Transportation, transfer, harbouring, sale, disposal, or receiving of a person, within or across the borders of the Republic, by means of a threat of harm; the threat or use of force, intimidation or other forms of coercion; abduction; fraud; deception or false pretences; the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability, to the extent that the complainant is inhibited from indicating his or her unwillingness or resistance to being trafficked, or unwillingness to participate in such an act; or the giving or receiving of payments, compensation, rewards, benefits or any other advantages for the purpose of any form or manner of exploitation, grooming or abuse of a sexual nature of such person, including the commission of any sexual offence or any offence of a sexual nature in any other law against such person, whether committed in or outside the borders of the Republic, and trafficks and trafficked have a corresponding meaning. Section 71 reads 71(1) Any person (A) who trafficks any person (B) without consent of B, is guilty of the offence of trafficking in persons for sexual purposes. 71(2) A person who- orders, commands, organises, supervises, controls or directs trafficking performs any act which is aimed at committing, causing, bringing about, encouraging, promoting, contributing towards or participating in trafficking or incites, instigates, commands, aids, advises, recruits, encourages or procures any other person to commit, cause, bring about, promote, perform, contribute towards or participates in trafficking, is guilty of an offence of involvement in trafficking in persons for sexual purposes. 71(3) For the purpose of subsection (1), consent means voluntary or uncoerced agreement. The SOA elaborates further on the circumstances. It states that 71(4) Circumstances in which B does not voluntarily or without coercion agree to being trafficked, as contemplated in subsection (3), include, but are not limited to, the following where B submits or is subjected to such an act as a result of any one or more of the means or circumstances contemplated in subparagraphs (i) to (vii) of the definition of trafficking having been used or being present; or where B is incapable in law of appreciating the nature of the act, including where B is, at the time of the commission of such act- asleep; unconscious; in an altered state of consciousness, including under the influence of any medicine, drug, alcohol or other substance, to the extent that Bs consciousness or judgement is adversely affected. 71(5) Any person who has been trafficked is not liable to stand trial for any criminal offence, including any migration-related offence, which was committed as a direct result of being trafficked. Any act of trafficking which is not included in sections 70 and 71 of the SOA, such as kidnapping, assault (common, and assault GBH), extortion, slavery, attempted murder, and murder have to be prosecuted under general statutory or common law offences.  [63]   Malachi v Cape Dance Academy International Pty Ltd Others In a recent reportable case of Tatiana Malachi v Cape Dance Academy Others  [64]  , even though the legal question did not deal with human trafficking, I think that it was a case of human trafficking. The facts are cited as follows. Applicant is a citizen of the Republic of Moldova. She was employed as an exotic dancer at a nightclub managed by the first respondent (Cape Dance Academy International PTY LTD) and second respondent (House of Rasputin Properties PTY LTD). On her arrival in South Africa during March 2009, applicant handed her passport to the owner of Rasputin. Applicant was initially informed that her passport would be kept for 30 days in order to have it registered at the Police station. Second respondent subsequently kept applicants passport during the entire period of her employment. The owner of second respondent informed applicant that he would not return her passport unless the applicant paid him $2000 for her air ticket and R20 000 as a levy. The applicant was unable to pay either of these amounts, as she was not earning sufficient income during her employment with second respondent. The applicant was to remain in custody pending the return date, which was to be 30 July 2009. If the applicant furnished adequate and satisfactory security for the total claim of R100 000 plus interest and costs, the applicant would be released from custody and the order for arrest discharged. The applicant had no assets of any tangible value in South Africa and therefore was unable to furnish adequate and satisfactory security. By agreement between the parties, the first and second respondents secured the discharge of the arrest warrant by the third respondent and the applicant was released from the custody on 24 July 2009. Applicant sought and received the assistance of the Consul General of Russia to facilitate her return to her home country Moldova. Prior to her departure from South Africa on 9 July 2009, applicant was arrested and taken into custody at Pollsmoor Prison. The arrest was made pursuant to a court order issued by the third respondent ex parte on 9 July 2009 and warrant of arrest tanquam suspectus de fuga. If we interpreted sections 70 and 71 as is, based on the facts of this case, Ms Malachi arrived in March 2009 and employed as an exotic dancer. It not evident from the facts how she got to be employed as an erotic dancer. Lets for

Evolution of Storage Media Technology Within the Data Centre

Evolution of Storage Media Technology Within the Data Centre AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EVOLUTION OF STORAGE MEDIA TECHNOLOGY WITHIN THE DATA CENTRE TO SUPPORT THE I/O REQUIREMENTS OF MODERN APPLICATIONS. Chandan Chandapura Ramesh (x14111306) Abstract Technology has always played a tremendous role in evolution of data storage media from the very starting punch cards to the present flash drives and from kilobytes to terabytes. The evolution of storage included from the standardization of storage devices i.e from large trunks of kilobytes storage media to very small microchip having the great storage capacity of gigabytes. However, in this paper we will look into evolution of storage devices from magnetic tape, magnetic drum, DRAM, FLOPPYs , CDs, DAT, DDS, MOD, , Micro drive, Multimedia Card SD card, Cloud backup solutions. Finally, in this article about evolution about storage devices, we will look into an assessment providing solutions for tiered storage solutions and its development with reference oracle, netapp tiered storage solutions and storage based on present storage trends. INRODUCTION As the time passed by, along with the time technology too has evolved in every step of life from basic needs to the advanced mode of humanity. Concurrently, the evolution in technology of computers has played a prominent role for humankind. Therefore, as the storage medium has also played a major role in computer architecture. Zetta. (2015) say as the computers evolved the storage mediums too had evolved, it all started from punch cards to present storage mediums like those that flash drives to SSD, companies have started to be relied on cloud backup solutions supported by data centers. As per the need of todays Business strategies the requirement for data storage has increased tremendously compared to past five years and to mitigate the costs over storage of data, it has been segregated and designed as structured, semi-structured and unstructured data and they have been stored. As the data is considered officially as corporate assets, there has always been attacks that are more vulnerable. Therefore, data hardening has been a big challenge but still many third party companies have been working towards its excellence. Few measures which have been considered under the improvisation level are SAN, Fiber channel over Ethernet (Fcoe), Internet protocol, Converged Network Adapter (CNA) etc. The storage network technology in the datacenters has been developed into many different configurations, which are DAS (direct attached storage), NAS (Network attached storage), SAT (Storage area networks). In further section we will look this structures with much more details. BACKGROUND: After looking into all the prospective over the storage media briefly will have a detailed discussion over each storage model and it evolution. Magnetic tape: PCMag digital group. (2015) say it was the first few recording mediums used to record music. The data recorded was actually in sequential format. It was manufactured by a ferromagnetic material the disadvantage of these tapes was they would be contaminated if they were not rolled and packed tightly. The tracks on storage device were running parallel to each other, which is called as parallel recording. In computing magnetic tapes are used to store auxiliary type of information. An excellent example for the computer system, which used magnetic tape, was UNIVAC. It had the capacity to handle 128 characters per inch so they were widely used in computers in earlier days. Magnetic drum: Webopedia. (2015) it was direct access storage device, which was metallic cylinder, which was coated by a material called magnetic-iron-oxide. The tracks recorded on the cylindrical device were stored in channels and it was capable of holding 200 tracks were the drum used to rotate at 3000rpm. But still it had a drawback which is that they were not able to store too much of data. DRAM (dynamic random access memory): it is a medium that is been used store the memory temporarily and it is been used widely in todays computer systems. It is made up of small capacitor and transistors. Dram has many cells and each cell is equal to a Bit. The elements on Dram are organized in rows and columns. Todays computers use these cells in megabyte modules. FLOPPYs: Riaz, Rashid et al (2015) say it is portable computer storage disks were data could be handled easily. They are more fragile, low at cost. It was highly dispensable for the people working on their personnel laptops and other processors. It poses a capacity of 250kb to 1.6 mb so it varies on the size of the disk. CDs, DAT, DDS, MOD, Multimedia Card, Micro drive, SD card were the next generation storage medias. CD-ROM was highly used to save and retrieve the data immensely on the systems. DAT was the digital recording table, which was actually released by the Sony in 1987. The main advantage is the data is recorded digitally rather that in analog style. But when compared to CD the performance of DAT is higher and advanced. Micro drives or so called flash drives are portable storage drives used to transfer small amount data very fast and efficiently and so on still the storage media has always been improvising till the present holographic storage formats and still going on giving out the services. Evolution of technologies in Data center storage services: Until now, we had brief discussion of different storage technologies in common IT infrastructures. SIEMON. (2015) say as the time has passed by evolution of DATA center has taken place in parallel. However, it was much more advanced as the data stored in the data center is considered as the corporate assets. so to store data securely different storage models have been introduced they are SAN, Fiber channel over Ethernet (Fcoe) , internet protocol, converged network adapter (CNA) under doff rent configurations like DAS (direct attached storage), NAS (Network attached storage), Further, in this paper will briefly look into every step of these evolution strategies. SAN (storage area network): [6] it is a high-speed network for the storage devices, which would be connected to the servers. The main advantage of SAN is it provides great assistance in backing up the data and disaster recovery. SAN uses fiber optic cable so that the data transfer rate from one location to different location will be high. Fiber channel over Ethernet (Fcoe): [6] it provides a great solution for the organizations possessing parallel network infrastructure issues. Fiber channel gives a high-speed data transfer protocol serially and standards for enterprise grade storage solutions, the transfer rates can be up to 10gbs. Fiber channels operate at great speeds like 4,16, 32 gb/s , but generally in IEEE 802.3ae standards the distance supported for 10GB Ethernet is 10km. so it is highly privileged in datacenters. Internet protocol:[6] it is group or singular drive which are combined together but they are not part of storage network but considered to be more over the internal storage media on personnel laptops. NAS (network-attached storage): [6] offers high-level storage solutions in file sharing services because the architecture is directly connected to LAN. However, because of these characters in NAS it synchronizes hardware storage resources into network, so it can be used to develop multiple networked services and by doing this storage utilization is very efficient. So based on the above technologies the storage solutions have been improvised but still there many technological labs still working on improvement on the performance, reliability and so on. Storage Media Solutions: In this paper will further discuss and present an assessment on tiered storage media solution on any top two companys depended on any context of the data at any particular time. We will be taking Netapp tiered storage solutions and Oracle tiered storage solutions. Tiered storage solutions: TechTarget (2005) the storage solutions are to segregation of data based on the company-defined policies to reduce the cost effectiveness of the data. The segregation may include different categories like performance, usage, security and so on. [6] Tiered storage consists few different tiers like tier 1, 2 and 3 data. Tier 1 includes highly sensitive data so data isolation is main aspect hence they are stored in expensive media solutions. Tier 2 data will consist of type two classified files so the storage media expense is reduced. In Tier 3 it consists of unclassified data the expenses are very less as the data is stored in in less expensive media. Oracle Tired Storage Solution Service: Oracle optimized solutions (2015) the main aim of oracle tiered solution is to provide highly efficient scalability and flexibility for the data. An always-new data storage trend was needed for better storage efficiency. As the data grows there was an opportunity arising for new wave lengths, Based on this aspects oracle offered optimized tiered solution to protect data as well, lower cost for storage and massive scalability. [3] providing Oracles disk and tape storage systems for better performance than many other storage media Introducing Oracle Storage tek modular tape gives a high throughput at lower cost and Oracle e Hierarchical Storage Manager provides configurable file system view and policy based management and data protection. They predicted that reduced deployment provides additional savings. Reduced data risk due to pretesting, ensured access and data integrity. They provide higher quality of the data availability and integrity. Oracle applies all the tiers for the data s torage solutions based on the client requirements. Oracle’s StorageTek T10000D offers outstanding bit error rate. it predicts that it offers 12.6 times better TCO than EMC isilonn soln. Netapp Tired Storage Solution Service: NetApp (2012) has great views towards the optimizing storage efficiency and performance. The main solution they give is, the right data at the right time at the right cost. Netapp provides a very different and unique way of solution for storing the data with an automated way of approach. The virtual tier provides a real time response to most of the demanding applications, ability to consolidate the data others tiers whenever required, conducting data cloning and SSD technologies. Basically provides reduced power -cooling storage. The developed flash technology in the [2] storage tiers of Netapp has helped in increasing the efficiency of the storage solutions. The key advantage of Netapp services provided for storage infrastructure will be the self-managing data-driven service layer. It helps mitigating the costs based on the performance for the classification of the data. The major feature to help the performance of the workloads would be the Netapp Flash Cache PCI-e-based modules. The workloads are like the file service workloads and OLTP workload etc†¦ Conclusion: In this paper, we initially discussed about the evolution of the storage media as the time it was integrated including the storage architecture. We even took a brief review about two companies’ providing storage services which are oracle tier storage solutions and netapp tier storage solutions. we actually had a view how both the companies mitigate the storage structure difficulties and provide a wide range of solutions for the clients which is a good prospective towards the development. The tiered storage solutions of each different vendors are competitive which indirectly supporting the development of the storage technologies. The tiered storage solutions describes the different levels of the storage entities set-up with different clients based on the value of the data. So we conclude telling that the development of storage solutions has to be much more improvised based on the requirement and developments. Bibliography: 1) Memory information. [Online] Available from: http://www.memoryinformation.com/dram.htm [Time accessed 2:38 am, date 4/6/2015] 2) NetApp (2012) â€Å"NetApp Virtual Storage Tier† [Online] 2012 Available from: http://www.netapp.com/us/technology/virtual-storage-tier/ [Time accessed 12:32 am, date 7/4/2015] 3) Oracle optimized solutions (2015) â€Å"Maximize Storage Efficiencies for Sharing Data Oracle Optimized Solution for Tiered Storage Infrastructure† [online] January 2015 Available from: http://www.oracle.com/us/solutions/oos/tiered-storage-infrastructure/tiered-storage-infra- bus-wp- 1911879.pdf [Time accessed 12:39 am, date 7/4/2015] 4) PCMag digital group. (2015) â€Å"ENCYCLOPEDIA† [online] 2015 Available from: http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/46499/magnetic-tape [Time accessed 2.08 am, date 4/6/2015] 5) Riaz, Rashid. Floppy Disk.How Products Are Made. 1994.Encyclopedia.com.10 Apr. 2015 Available from: http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Floppy_Disk.aspx [Time accessed 2.48pm, date 4/6/2015] 6) SIEMON. (2015) â€Å"Data Center Storage Evolution†. [Online] 2015. Available from: http://www.siemon.com/us/white_papers/14-07-29-data-center-storage-evolution.asp [Time accessed 1:18 am, date 4/6/2015] 7) TechTarget (2005) â€Å"Tiered storage† [online] September 2005 Available from: http://searchstorage.techtarget.com/definition/tiered-storage [Time accessed 8:45pm, date 10/4/2015] 8) Webopedia. (2015) â€Å"magnetic drum† [online] 2015 Available from: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/M/magnetic_drum.html [Time accessed 2.18 am, date 4/6/2015] 9) Webopedia. (2015) â€Å"SAN-storage area network† [online] 2015 Available from: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/S/SAN.html [Time accessed 8:27 pm, date 6/4/2015] 10) Wikipedia (2015) â€Å"Digital Audio Tape†. [Online] March 2015. Available from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Audio_Tape#References [Accessed: 8:10 pm, date10/4/2015] 11) Zetta. (2015) â€Å"The History of Computer Storage†. [Online] February 2015. Available from: http://www.zetta.net/history-of-computer-storage/ [Time accessed 4/5/2015, 11:35 pm] 12) Goda, K.; Kitsuregawa, M., The History of Storage Systems,Proceedings of the IEEE, vol.100, no.Special Centennial Issue, pp.1433,1440, May 13 2012 doi: 10.1109/JPROC.2012.2189787 URL:http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=arnumber=6182574isnumber=6259910 13) Knowles, Mike, Survey of the storage evolution,User Group Conference, 2003. Proceedings, vol., no., pp.362,367, 9-13 June 2003 doi: 10.1109/DODUGC.2003.1253418 URL:http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=arnumber=1253418isnumber=28042 1

Three Rings of Cruelty :: social issues

Three Rings of Cruelty Ladies and gentlemen, children of all ages, step right up and witness the amazing feats presented before your very eyes! Grab a bag of peanuts, a stick of cotton candy and find your seats, because you’re going to need them. Since animals do not usually stand on their heads, ride unicycles, or wear glitzy bow-ties, circus workers take it upon themselves to force the animals into submission by utilizing inhumane methods. Circus animals are made to live in substandard conditions where they have little access to food, water, and virtually no space to run and play. A circus is the epitome of innocence, or is it? Because behind the circus’ merry exterior lies a world of cruelty where animals ranging from the exotic to domestic are being needlessly exploited and abused by their trainers. The circus industry is selective in the nature of information it releases to the public, thereby maintaining its facade of innocence. Between May of 1993 and August of 2001 there have been over fifty accounts of animal abuse occurring in Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus. During this time, seventeen elephants died or were euthanized. Out of those seventeen, only five deaths were announced to the general public (PETA, Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus Fact Sheet, np). This is the same public who spends thousands of dollars each year to attend and keep shows like this in business. Yet the circus is reluctant in divulging any information regarding the very things these people pay money to see. Perhaps the circus believes these deaths are private matters, not important enough to mention. It is more likely though, to assume that it fears what may happen if the news of these deaths were to spread further. There would undoubtedly be a drop in attendance, which would result in a drop in revenue. If not enough money is brought into the circus, it has no choice but to close. Instead of spending money to maintain the animals’ well-being the cash is used to keep the circus afloat and on the road. After being sued for animal abuse in July of 2000, Catherine Ort-Mabry ,a spokeswoman from Ringling stated, â€Å"The show provides its animals with the highest standards of care.† (ABPnews, Circus Sued for Animal Abuse. np) Her statement is a laughable fallacy when examining the high mortality rate in the elephants in circuses is due to captivity induced foot pro blems and arthritis.

Maya Angelou :: Biography Biographies Essays

Maya Angelou "I had decided that St. Louis was a foreign country. In my mind I had only stayed there for a few weeks. As quickly as I understood that I had not reached my home, I sneaked away to Robin's Hood's Forest and the caves of Alley Oop where all reality was unreal and even that changed my day. I carried the same shield that I had used in Stamps: 'I didn't come to stay.'" In Maya Angelou's autobiographical novel, "I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings", tender-hearted Marguerite Johnson, renamed Maya by her refined brother Bailey, discovers all of the splendors and agonies of growing up in a prejudiced, early twentieth century America. Rotating between the slow country life of Stamps, Arkansas and the fast-pace societies in St. Louis, Missouri and San Francisco, California taught Maya several random aspects of life while showing her segregated America from coast to coast. When Maya was three years old, her beautiful and successful mother sent her and Bailey from California to Stamps to stay in the care of their grandmother, Mrs. Annie Henderson. Soon thought of as their real mother, "Momma" raised her grandchildren with the strict Southern principles such as, "wash your feet before you go to bed; always pray to the savior and you shall be forgiven; chores and school come before play; and help those in need and you shall be helped yourself." Bearing those basic principles, Maya and Bailey grew older and wiser in Stamps, each year watching the Negro cotton-pickers come and go with the burdens and homage comparable to no white person in the county. However, one day their father rode extravagantly into Stamps and called for his children to return home with him to St. Louis. Bailey, an adventurer eager to leave the quaint, simple family life in Arkansas, agreed immediately, but "tender-hearted" Maya was frightened by the idea of big cities and strange people. In St. Louis, where she was presented an entirely different lifestyle, Maya experienced harrowing moments that caused her yearning for the quiet safety of Stamps. Her "Mother Dear's" boyfriend, Mr. Freeman, sexually abused her twice, and when she testified in court against him, the "important connections" her mother had to the gangsters in St. Louis beat Mr. Freeman to death to disburden the shame from the family. In court, Maya lied, saying that he only touched her once, and the guilt of lying to her closest friend, her brother Bailey, cause Maya to mute herself.

Gender Inequality: Problems and Solutions :: Gender Sex Male Female Essays

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The issue of gender inequality is one which has been publicly reverberating through society for decades. The problem of inequality in employment being one of the most pressing issues today. In order to examine this situation one must try to get to the root of the problem and must understand the sociological factors that cause women to have a much more difficult time getting the same benefits, wages, and job opportunities as their male counterparts. The society in which we live has been shaped historically by males. The policy-makers have consistently been male and therefore it is not surprising that our society reflects those biases which exist as a result of this male-domination. It is important to examine all facets of this problem, but in order to fully tackle the issue one must recognize that this inequality in the workforce is rooted in what shapes future employees and employers-- education. This paper will examine the inequalities in policy, actual teaching situations, admission to post-secondary institutions, hiring, and job benefits and wages. It will also tackle what is being done to solve this problem and what can be done to remedy the situation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The late 1960s brought on the first real indication that feminist groups were concerned with the education system in North America. The focus of these feminist groups captured the attention of teachers, parents, and students. At first the evidence for inequality in schooling was based on no more than specific case studies and anecdotal references to support their claims but as more people began to show concern for the situation, more conclusive research was done to show that the claims of inequality were in fact valid and definitely indicated a problem with the way that schools were educating the future adults of society. One of the problems which became apparent was the fact that the policy-makers set a curriculum which, as shown specifically through textbooks, was sexist and for the most part still is.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Textbooks are one of the most important tools used in educating students whether they are elementary school storybooks or university medical textbooks. It is therefore no surprise that these books are some of the most crucial information sources that a student has throughout their schooling. Many studies have been done examining the contents of these books to reveal the amount of sexism displayed in these educational tools. The results clearly show that gender inequality definitely runs rampant in textbooks some of the sexism subtle and some overt. To begin with, it is apparent that historical texts show a distorted view of women by portraying them unfairly and inaccurately and Gender Inequality: Problems and Solutions :: Gender Sex Male Female Essays   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The issue of gender inequality is one which has been publicly reverberating through society for decades. The problem of inequality in employment being one of the most pressing issues today. In order to examine this situation one must try to get to the root of the problem and must understand the sociological factors that cause women to have a much more difficult time getting the same benefits, wages, and job opportunities as their male counterparts. The society in which we live has been shaped historically by males. The policy-makers have consistently been male and therefore it is not surprising that our society reflects those biases which exist as a result of this male-domination. It is important to examine all facets of this problem, but in order to fully tackle the issue one must recognize that this inequality in the workforce is rooted in what shapes future employees and employers-- education. This paper will examine the inequalities in policy, actual teaching situations, admission to post-secondary institutions, hiring, and job benefits and wages. It will also tackle what is being done to solve this problem and what can be done to remedy the situation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The late 1960s brought on the first real indication that feminist groups were concerned with the education system in North America. The focus of these feminist groups captured the attention of teachers, parents, and students. At first the evidence for inequality in schooling was based on no more than specific case studies and anecdotal references to support their claims but as more people began to show concern for the situation, more conclusive research was done to show that the claims of inequality were in fact valid and definitely indicated a problem with the way that schools were educating the future adults of society. One of the problems which became apparent was the fact that the policy-makers set a curriculum which, as shown specifically through textbooks, was sexist and for the most part still is.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Textbooks are one of the most important tools used in educating students whether they are elementary school storybooks or university medical textbooks. It is therefore no surprise that these books are some of the most crucial information sources that a student has throughout their schooling. Many studies have been done examining the contents of these books to reveal the amount of sexism displayed in these educational tools. The results clearly show that gender inequality definitely runs rampant in textbooks some of the sexism subtle and some overt. To begin with, it is apparent that historical texts show a distorted view of women by portraying them unfairly and inaccurately and

Computerized Budgeting

Computerized Budgeting MGMT 360 Budgeting has been a major part of forecasting how companies spend their money throughout the fiscal year. In most companies, the words â€Å"it’s budget time†, strike fear in the hearts of employees. Financial officers and management accountants brace themselves for reconciling reams of spreadsheets that may reveal wildly different data depending on order and configuration. Non finance employees in various divisions scurry to understand their role in the budgeting process and struggled to pull together the facts and figures they hoped would appear attractive to management. Traditional budgeting was carried out on a pad and pen, archived in countless journals and ledgers and often stored in boxes and crates. Retrieval was a difficult task. Today, computerized budgeting (E-Budgeting) solutions have streamlined and transformed the budgeting process at all levels of an organization. This research will show the factors that contribute to every day individuals to government; that are now using E-budgeting for accurate budget and bookkeeping strategies. Before the days of calculators, computers, and the internet, companies had to budget their finances the old fashioned way. Many accountants had to have countless ledgers, journals, and books filled with the next fiscal year’s projections. At the end of the year they had to go back and reconcile all figures and see what they could do to make the next year even better. This was a very demanding task, since all they had to use was scratch paper, abacuses, and lots of ink. Since technology was not yet able to provide ease to these tasks, the actual task of budgeting and bookkeeping was costly and largely ineffective. Traditional budgeting had many problems. Many employees of companies were unaware about what the company needed in order to make the budget work. With many employees not knowing what information was important and what wasn’t, many budgets and forecast tools were inaccurate. Another weakness was that historical data and past budgets were harder to access. Steve Hornyak of Management Accounting Magazine explains: â€Å"The biggest drawback of traditional budgeting systems is the inability of participating individuals to access and use historical data during the budgeting and planning process. In fact, employees or managers attempting to allocate their sliver of the company funds often work in a vacuum. Without access to historical budgeting information, creating a budget from the ground up or making alterations to the existing budget may become tedious — and sometimes futile — tasks for nonfinance users† (Hornyak, 1998). With employees unable to contribute true validity to the budget and the key historical data missing, bookkeeping was quite difficult. Another stumbling block traditional budgeting presented became obvious when separate departments or different regions within a parent company would try to pool their records together. All figures and numerical records were united and the CFO would make a final projection. However, if one department’s figures were off or slightly miscalculated, the company’s budget as a whole was inaccurate. Companies knew that something had to be done. Ian Henderson of Management Accounting Magazine states: â€Å"The majority of the problems encountered with budgeting arise from managing the process itself†¦The choice for large [organizations] is either to loose many of the undoubted benefits in planning and control offered by budgeting or to apply a software solution to the process and make it less troublesome, less costly and more effective† (Henderson, 1997). Computerized budgeting allows departments using the same program, to bring all figures into one general location, saving countless man hours. With the introduction of advanced data-entry techniques, the undertaking of budgeting each year became easier and easier. Computers helped add and subtract much faster and more accurately, so entering key figures in a spreadsheet became the wave of the future. It made life easier for accountants so they could show their finance departments and other clients exactly how money was going to be spent. It helped create exact figures making pie charts, line graphs and other figure representatives accurate. E-Budgeting has many different aspects and facets. The most useful part of e-budgeting is that it completely automates the budgeting process. Steve Hornyak defines e-budgeting: â€Å"An e-budgeting solution completely automates the development of an organization's budget and forecast. †¦ Web-based enterprise budgeting systems offer a centrally administered system that provides easy-to-use, flexible tools for the end users who are responsible for budgeting† (Hornyak, 2008). The author of the article points out how the technology computerizes the process of making an effective budget. This helps anyone from a small family to a government department with the means of tracking and monitoring a budget. As technology continued to advance, these methods became easier to obtain and utilize. Anyone from the smallest Mom & Pop Store to government officials could enter the necessary information and see exactly how and where their money was going to be divided. Once the internet was created, companies could create inter-office emails and memos making sharing the information that much easier. Companies were able to save money and focus man power more effectively with each new and improved software addition. Most programs used to make budgets that are available to the general public are stand alone applications. These programs stay on the same computer they were created, and don’t need to interact with other software or computers on a related network or the internet. The data created and stored on these programs also stay in one centralized location. This type of budgeting is useful with small families and companies since there is no need to let the information reach the wrong hands. Programs and applications that use outside servers and client formats are usually associated with bigger companies and departments that have many employees over different parts of the country. Some companies use programs that interact with many different financial agencies across the country and even the world. Financial Executive Magazine reviewed a new service offered by Ebudgeting. com and explained its useful tools: â€Å"Ebudgets. om, a specialist in Web-based budgeting and planning technology, has delivered ebudgets 3. 0, a release that it says give large and complex companies increased â€Å"dynamic control† over their budget processes. The software automates budget consolidation, giving management an immediate budget overview† (14, 2000). These companies need services such as this when there are multiple stores or divisions of a parent company. CFOs and other executives need an instant overview of how certain regions and departments are doing financially, in order to make informed decisions and executive judgments. Having budgeting tools that are able to integrate with other financial programs or systems is quite a useful feature. Companies have learned how to create tools and make the entire financing process become one easy process. A company out of Richmond, VA, The Bookkeeping Department, created a product with the same qualities. Accounting Technology Magazine explains: â€Å"Key to the success of The Bookkeeping Department is the deployment of an electronic document management solution that integrates with the most prevalent SMB [Small –to-Medium Business] accounting system, Intuit's QuickBooks†. Scott Vaden. , President of The Bookkeeping Department, found the perfect integrated solution in CNG-Books, Cabinet NCi's electronic document management system that streamlines Quick-Books data entry and document filing into one consistent and efficient electronic process. By uniting QuickBooks transactions with business documents, CNG-Books makes filing, locating, and sharing documents simple, seamless, and secure† (SR25, 2008). This new program is an excellent example of how financial agencies and departments are able to share information and help ease the process of bookkeeping. Using computerized budgeting tools and programs have many benefits to a company. One major benefit is helping to cover liability when it comes time to interact with the government and make figures public. For example, many times companies who had prepared taxes using older budgeting and bookkeeping methods were held responsible for any mistakes made, costing a company unnecessary fines and expenses. Now with computerized assistance and internet support, companies can avoid such penalties. Wayne Shulz of Accounting Technology Magazine explains: â€Å"Even the best payroll staff can make mistakes with the confusing array of payroll tax deposit rules. Nearly every payroll processing company protects you against costly tax deposit penalties and interest by guaranteeing timeliness of your online tax payments†¦If there's a mistake in computation or timeliness, the processor pays and not your company† (Shulz, 2009). This shows how using computers and having interacting financial agencies saves companies money. Another way computerized budgeting helps companies is by bringing together different parts of the company thus increasing employee participation. Once the process of making a budget is streamlined, many employees don’t mind being apart of it. Lesley Meall of AccountancyMagazine. com spoke with Dave Turner of Coda Inc. in a recent issue. Turner was quoted as saying: â€Å"'We are seeing a lot more collaboration on budgeting,' he says, and the process is arguably becoming more useful. As more people become involved and the process becomes more accurate, people feel more important and empowered,'† (Meall, 2008). With an easier system in place, inter-department collaboration is an idea many are able to grasp. One last advantage new-age budgeting creates is helping save time and money in the budgeting process. By using computers many companies are able to save paper, not having to create and copy existing budgets or taking up space storing old budgets. With the recent growing popularity of going green, many companies have taken conserving resources to heart. AccountancyMagazine. com continues: â€Å"Going green can save money as well as the planet, but it can be difficult to know where to begin, so the sustainable business experts at Envirowise are offering help in the form of an interactive online tool. † It allows businesses to get the information they need to get started quickly and easily,' said spokesperson Mary Leonard, ‘highlighting those measures that are likely to provide them with the greatest cost-savings benefits in the areas most relevant to their business'† (Henderson, 2009). This shows cutting costs in any way helps not only the bottom line for companies but also has a positive effect on the environment. In conclusion, there are many benefits to using computerized budgeting programs both on and off the internet. The use of these programs helps simplify and expedite the making of budgets and bookkeeping for both the financial savvy and the fiscal illiterate. Dragging and dropping figures, more accurate results, effective presentation options make computerized budgeting the best practice for everyone. Traditional budgeting has had its share of inefficiencies and flaws in the past. Today, newer technologies and faster computing methods have helped to alleviate most, if not all, of those issues. References †¢ Henderson, Ian. (October 1997). Does Budgeting Have To Be So Troublesome? Management Accounting: Magazine for Chartered Management Accountants. 75(9). P. 1. †¢ Hornyak, Steve. (October 1998). Budgeting Made Easy. Management Accounting: Magazine for Chartered Management Accountants. 80(4). P. 1. †¢ Meall, Leslie. (February 2008). A Marriage Made In Heaven: Budgeting Technology. Accountancy Magazine. p. 65. †¢ Shulz, Wayne. (April 2009). Online Payroll Can Save You Money: Letting Someone Else Wade Through The Process Can Benefit Clients. Accountancy Technology. p. 18. †¢ Financial Executive review of E-Budgeting. com (September/October 2000). Retrieved April 23rd from Financial Executive Magazine website. p. 14 †¢ Soaring With Integrated Electronic Document Management: Accounting Technology (June 2008). Retrieved from Accounting Technology website on April 24th. p. SR25. †¢ Boost Your Bottom Line: Accountancy Magazine. (February 2009). Retrieved from the Accounting Magazine website on April 24th. p. 55.

Education Timeline

History of American Education Timeline Antiria Jenkins HIS324: History of American Education Instructor: Timothy Kilgore November 12, 2012 http://prezi. com/vcesi_y4xome/history-of-american-education-timeline/ Education in the United States has faced great changes toward development in the past hundreds of years. At the beginning, during the Colonial Era, the principles of education were mainly based on those already used by European nations at the time.However, the country began to adopt its own approaches toward teachings given different social, political and religious practices (Rippa 9). 1635The first Latin Grammar School (Boston Latin School): Founded on April 23, 1635, in Boston, Massachusetts, it is known as the first public school and oldest existing school in the United States. The Latin grammar curriculum was designed for boys 8 to 15, based on European Schools in a Puritan area. Schools were to prepare boys for college and the service of God.Protestantism believed that edu cation was needed so that individuals could interpret the bible. 1751American Academy founded by Ben Franklin: The demand of skilled workers in the middle of the eighteenth century led Benjamin Franklin to start a new kind of secondary school, thus, the American Academy was established in Philadelphia. American high schools eventually replaced Latin grammar schools. Curriculum was geared to prepare students for employment. Academies eventually replaced the Latin Grammar Schools and some admitted Women. 783Introduction of Noah Webster’s Speller: Noah Webster published the A grammatical Institute of the English language, also known as, â€Å"the blue-back speller. † This was the most widely circulated of the early American textbooks and like Webster’s American Dictionary it strived to establish a national identity as well as the United States’ linguistic and cultural independence of England. As the first popular American textbook, the introduction of Noah W ebster’s speller stands as a significant event in the history of American education. 817(April 15, 1817) Connecticut Asylum for the Education and Instruction of Deaf and Dumb Persons: The Connecticut Asylum at Hartford for the Instruction of Deaf and Dumb Persons opens. It is the first permanent school for the deaf in the U. S. Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet and Laurent Clerc are the school's co-founders. In 1864, Thomas Gallaudet's son, Edward Miner Gallaudet, helps to start Gallaudet University, the first college specifically for deaf students. 824First State-Supported School Established: Originally named the Boston English Classical School and established in 1821, the school was renamed the English High School in 1824 and also, during that year, became the first-state supported common school. The adoption of the English High as a state-supported common school is a significant event in the history of American education as it was, essentially, the first public school. 1855Abolitio n of Segregation of Schools in Massachusetts: Following the case of Roberts v.Boston, the state of Massachusetts abolished segregation in their schools. The victory would be the first in a long battle lasting nearly an entire century. This was the first law to oppose segregated schools in the United States and is, therefore, a significant event in the history of American education. 1856The First Kindergarten: In the United States Margarethe Schurz founded the first kindergarten in Watertown, Wisconsin, in 1856. Her German-language kindergarten impressed Elizabeth Peabody, who opened the first American English-language kindergarten in Boston in 1860.The kindergarten was much more influential in the United States and in the northern part of Europe which encouraged the National Education Association to begin a kindergarten department in 1874, and later, teachers founded the International Kindergarten Union in 1892. 1896The Laboratory School of the University of Chicago (First Progressi ve Laboratory):John Dewey, the father of the progressive education, established the first laboratory school for testing the progressive educational method. This would lead to a popular trend in education adopted by schools during the first half of the twentieth century.Progressive education emphasizes cultivation of problem solving and critical thinking skills through hands-on learning activities. 1905 Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching: Founded by Andrew Carnegie in 1905 and chartered in 1906 by an act of Congress, the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching is an independent policy and research center. The Foundation encouraged the adoption of a standard system for equating â€Å"seat time† (the amount of time spent in a class) to high school credits which is still in use today. This system is known as the â€Å"Carnegie Unit. 1939 The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (first called the Wechsler- Bellevue Intelligence Scale): This scale was dev eloped by David Wechsler and is intended to measure human intelligence reflected in both verbal and performance abilities. It introduces the concept of the â€Å"deviation IQ,† which calculates IQ scores based on how far subjects' scores differ (or deviate) from the average (mean) score of others who are the same age, rather than calculating them with the ratio (MA/CA multiplied by 100) system. Wechsler intelligence tests, particularly the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, are still widely used in U.S. schools to help identify students needing special education. 1944 The Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944 (GI Bill of Rights): Bill signed into law on June 22, 1944 by President Franklin Roosevelt during World War II. The GI Bill affords military veterans government funding to pursue or continue educational goals following their service. The GI Bill not only compensates veterans for their service, but has also been responsible for the growth of American colleges and u niversities. 1954 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka: On May 17, 1954, The U. S. Supreme court ruled in Brown v.Board of Education that separate schools did not provide equal education to students and therefore banned the segregation of schools nationwide with a ruling of (9–0) decision stated that separate educational facilities are inherently unequal and declared unconstitutional. 1958 Defense Education Act of 1958: The Defense Education Act of 1958 was signed into law on September 2, 1958 by the United States government during the cold war in reaction to the successful launch of the Soviet satellite Sputnik. The Soviets’ scientific success motivated the U. S. government to fund the U.S. Office of Education’s establishment of scientifically and mathematically centered curriculum. The act contained ten titles designed to improve the nation's schools. 1964 Civil Rights Act of 1964: The Civil Rights Act of 1964 signed on July 2, 1964 by President Lyndon B. Joh nson banned discrimination in all federally funded programs and outlawed major forms of discrimination against racial, ethnic, national and religious minorities, and women. This law helped to further the ruling of Brown v. Board of Education as many schools had continued segregation.The Civil Rights Act of 1964 financially, â€Å"cut-off,† institutions, such as public schools, which promoted discrimination of any and all types and gave leverage to the movement. 1965 The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA): The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) was passed on April 9, 1965 s a part of the â€Å"War on Poverty. † It emphasizes equal access to education and establishes high standards and accountability as well as provides federal funds to help low-income students, which results in the initiation of educational programs such as Title I and bilingual education. 965 The Higher Education Act: The Higher Education Act was signed on November 8, 1965 to stre ngthen the educational resources of colleges and universities and to provide financial assistance for students in postsecondary and higher education. It increased federal money given to universities, created scholarships, gave low-interest loans for students, and established a National Teachers Corps. 1965 Project Head Start: The Head Start program started in the summer of 1965 as an eight week summer program for children from low-income communities going into public school in the fall (Styfco and Zigler, 2003).The program provided preschool classes, medical care, dental care, and mental health services (Kagan, 2002). 1975Education for All Handicapped Children Act now known as The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA): requires public schools to make available to all eligible children with disabilities a free appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment appropriate to their individual needs and requires public school systems to develop appropriate I ndividualized Education Programs (IEP's) for each child which will reflect the individualized needs of each student. 002 The No Child Left Behind Act: On January 8, 2002, NCLB was signed into law. NCLB supports standards-based education reform based on the premise that setting high standards and establishing measurable goals can improve individual outcomes in education. The Act requires states to develop assessments in basic skills. States must give these assessments to all students at select grade levels in order to receive federal school funding. All students are required to meet the standards establish by NCLB at the accountability of educators. 2004 H. R. 350, The Individuals with Disabilities Improvement Act (IDEA 2004): reauthorizes and modifies IDEA. Changes, which take effect on July 1, 2005, include modifications in the IEP process and procedural safeguards, increased authority for school personnel in special education placement decisions, and alignment of IDEA with the No Child Left Behind Act. The 2004 reauthorization also requires school districts to use the Response to Intervention (RTI) approach as a means for the early identification of students at risk for specific learning disabilities.RTI provides a three-tiered model for screening, monitoring, and providing increasing degrees of intervention using â€Å"research-based instruction† with the overall goal of reducing the need for special education services (Re-authorization, 2004). The history of education has been influenced multiple times over the past years. In some shape, form, or fashion, the many changes have affected many lives, especially those with disabilities.Going from segregation to desegregation, women involvement in education and fighting for equal education of those individuals with disabilities has not only marked historical events but has brought togetherness among all races and genders. Without these historical events in shaping education, the world would be at a stand still. References Dewey, John. 1938 (1963). Experience and Education. New York: Collier Books Kagan, J. (2002). Empowerment and education: Civil rights, expert-advocates, and parent politics in Head Start, 1964-1980.Teachers College Record, 104(3), 516-562. Re-authorization of the IDEA 2004. Retrieved November 5, 2012 from http://www. nj. gov/education/specialed/idea/reauth/ Rippa, Alexander. Education in a Free Society. Eighth Edition. New York: Longman, 1997. 3-107. Print. Styfco, S. , & Zigler, E. (2003). Early Childhood Programs for a New Century. Reynolds, A. , & Wang, M. (Eds. ) The federal commitment to preschool education: Lessons from and for Head Start (pp. 3-33). Washington, D. C. : Child Welfare League of America, Inc.